Comprehension-reading+and+assessment


 * It's a strange world of language in which skating on thin ice can get you into hot water. ~Franklin P. Jones **

Comprehension involves the understanding of meaning taken from a text, from its print, illustrations, language and layout (Hill, 2006). This requires individuals to extract information from a text, and then construct meaning from this information. In the case of younger children, the earlier they begin to think critically about stories they read, the sooner they will be able to tackle texts that are more complex. Teachers can observe children reading and make notes of their miscues, to determine their level of understanding. One possible reason for these miscues could be that children may put too much effort into decoding single words, and consequently lose meaning of the text (Hill, 2006).
 * So, what is comprehension?**

Three elements are concerned with comprehension: the reader, text and the activity. The reader is all of the aspects that make people unique, including cultural experiences, knowledge, capabilities, age and gender. Texts are found in print or electronic form, and can be classified into different genres, for example, narratives and comics. The activity however, has three dimensions:
 * the purpose for reading (why?)
 * the processes used in reading (how?)
 * the consequences (what is learnt from reading a particular text?)

Each child is influenced by their family and community they are exposed to, and they in turn affect their surroundings (Hill, 2006). Therefore, each child will have their own views on texts depending on how they have been brought up: some may expect to read texts aloud and memorise them, whereas others may have experienced reading dog-eared books, which have been a treasured possession in their family.

 Hill (2006) writes that teachers also need to be mindful of possible "road blocks" to teaching literacy and comprehension. These include:
 * Road blocks to comprehension**

Children should be encouraged to participate in activities with the knowledge that they are in charge of what they learn. One such activity that teachers can use involves writing or drawing something on the board, covering it, and then asking the students what was on it. Some children will immediately answer, having had paid attention to what was going on. However, some may not know, responding "nothing", or something similar. They will soon realise the purpose of the activity, and may begin to actively notice and remember events that occur within the texts they read. If children are having trouble remembering what they have read because they cannot pay attention, they can be encouraged to take notes or draw pictures about what they are reading to keep their mind on task. This way, they will also be learning a valuable skill for their future studies.
 * Building active involvement **
 * Holding attention**

If children find it hard to comprehend a text, they may begin to lose interest and persistence. Teachers can combat this by having students tell each other what they found most difficult about a text, and then describe the strategies used to solve this problem.
 * Being persistent **

Taking time to reflect on something just read is crucial to its understanding. However, impulsive children will want to respond as soon as possible. Teachers can encourage these individuals to write or draw something from the text, be it the setting, characters and so on. Sometimes they will not be able to recall these; in these situations students should revisit the text and reread it more carefully.
 * Taking time to reflect **

Children constantly need to be reminded that it is acceptable to make a mistake. If they do not know this, they may become defensive, and not listen to any feedback. To overcome this problem, teachers can provide students with goal cards that they tick when they have reacted positively to constructive criticism. This will then help them to learn from their mistakes.
 * Being flexible **

**How do I assess comprehension?**

Teachers can use a variety of strategies to assess comprehension. A few are described below, from Hill's (2006) text.

**Comprehension questions** ** Literal ... on the line ** These questions require children to state actual information given in the text. For example, in //Goldilocks and the Three Bears//, children may be asked what the girl's name was.

Using these questions, children must make assumptions based on what is implied in the story. In //The Three Little Pigs//, for example, children may be asked, "Which house is the weakest?"
 * Interpretive ... between the lines **

**Inferential ... beyond the lines** Here, children must think further than the text to synthesise information, and then provide a creative or critical response based on what they have read. They must link their reading to their personal experiences, and evaluate the text. Teachers may ask their students to create a fair and just ending to //Goldilocks and// t//he Three Bears//, as a result.

**Retelling** This helps children to focus on the most relevant information and the sequence of events. Students also learn about text structures as they rehearse it. Teachers can support those who require assistance in the following ways: Children can also be encouraged to work in pairs, as this provides feedback for the reader, and they are required to listen for key ideas. This helps them assess their own comprehension skills, and may help them understand the process more. This also provides the opportunity to foster positive social relationships.
 * making sure texts are at an appropriate reading level, and is interesting to the child
 * using activities such as readers theatre, shared book and partner reading to help build fluency for those who read too slowly or too fast
 * extending children's vocabulary by discussing new words before reading
 * using different strategies to help in the recall of key words by prompting: [[image:diagrams.bmp align="right"]]
 * // Look at the word written on the board/card //
 * // Say the word slowly //
 * // Trace over its letters //
 * // Close your eyes and see it //
 * // Say the parts of the word //
 * // Write down the word from your memory //
 * have children practice recalling information from texts at an easier level than their reading level
 * use diagrams such as Venn diagrams, semantic webs and category boxes to record important information.

Teachers can use the following concepts to help students to think about what is read. They are also useful in assessment, or even can be adapted into a series of games for small groups.
 * Bloom's questions **
 * //Concept// || //What is it?// || //Example// ||
 * Knowledge || Recall of information || List events in sequential order ||
 * Comprehension || Understanding meaning and interpretation of instructions and problems, and can state problem in own words || List three choices the character had. Why did the character do this? ||
 * Application || Use of concept in new situation || Have you ever been in a situation like the main character? How was it similar or different? ||
 * Analysis || Separates ideas into categories so that structure is understood. Can tell the difference between fact and inference || Can you find an example of a self/self-conflict, a self/group conflict and a self/society conflict? Can you describe them? ||
 * Synthesis || Creates a new structure (e.g. character, situation) from what is given in the reading || Introduce a new character to the text, making sure they have an important part to play ||
 * Evaluation || Makes judgements about what is read || Do you think the book is useful for teaching us about respecting others? Why/why not? ||


 * Activities to use **

The following are just a few activities teachers can implement when teaching comprehension.

This stands for "what I KNOW", "what I WANT to learn" and "WHAT I have learned", or more simply, the Knowledge, Wants and What has been learned from a particular text. It can be used in small groups, pairs, individually or with the entire class. Importantly, the "K" and "W" components are completed **before** reading, and the "L" part comes **after** reading. An "H" component may also be used ("HOW can I learn?"), resulting in KWHL.
 * KWL **

Children can predict words that may appear in a particular book based on what they see on the cover, from the title, or any other means. These are to be noted, and after reading, the group should check their list against what was read.
 * Text clues **

**Six thinking hats** Edward DeBono's thinking hats require students to "put on different hats" in order to think from a different perspective. The hats are as follows:

White hat: only information or relevant facts are used Yellow hat: a positive "yes" answer is supplied, supported with evidence Red hat: people's feelings are involved and discussed Purple hat: a "no" answer; the negative view with evidence (the opposite to the yellow hat) Blue hat: monitors things-the process, time. Encourages others Green hat: trying new things (creative), a divergent view

Click on the image for more information on this topic.


 * What strategies can be used in comprehension? **

When teaching comprehension, teachers need to be mindful that they do their best to engage students in the story beforehand. This not only means that they should discuss characters, events and the like, but they should also link the reading to the children's lives. In this way, children may find it easier to predict what may take place in the story. In fact, it has been discovered that proficient readers use a number of strategies to assist their comprehension skills (Hill, 2006). These include: However, there are many other approaches teachers can take.
 * predicting-show students the cover of the book and ask them what they think is happening, or what could happen.
 * questioning-encourage children to compose questions related to the plot of the book, and answer these after reading.
 * making images-encourage children to empathise with characters, and also to imagine what may happen next.
 * seeking clarification-constructing questions about what is happening and how characters may be feeling.
 * constructing summaries-after reading, retell the main ideas.

This technique requires students to be in groups of four. One student acts as predictor, another is a clarifier, another a questioner, and the final a summariser. Each role is summarised in the table below.
 * Reciprocal reading **

"Who will be in the story?" || "Were there any words anyone did not understand or had trouble reading?" || "Have you ever experienced anything like this?" || "In this book, ... happened." || Teachers should introduce each role individually, modelling it to the class as a whole. Children should also be given practice at this, especially when summarising the main ideas in the text. However, teachers must be sure to explain what the strategy is, why it is being used, when to use it, and how students are to use it.
 * PREDICTOR || helps group predict what will happen, then reads the text
 * CLARIFIER || clarifies concepts
 * QUESTIONER || asks each group member a question
 * SUMMARISER || summarises the book

In the video below, a teacher works with a small group of students, using guided reading. She ensures to tell the group exactly what they should do (that is, to note the problems occurring in the text they read), and has one student begin the reading (the "star student"). The teacher soon prompts the group to encourage them to discuss what is happened, and what could occur (making predictions). She has informed them (before reading) that they will be required to write a sentence or two based on the book, about the problem. In this way, student's attention is being drawn to the task at hand.

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